References:
Cain, D. L. (1985). "Quality of the Arkansas River and irrigation- return flows in lower Arkansas River valley." U.S Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigation Report 84(4273): 85.

Almeida, C. A., S. Quintar, et al. (2007). "Influence of urbanization and tourist activities on the water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis Argentina)." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 133(1-3): 459-465.
A study of the water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis - Argentina) was carried out in order to evaluate the possible effect of the anthropogenic activities on the river developed in the homonymous town. Samples were collected during the period March 2000-November 2005 at three selected sampling sites (RP1, RP2 and RP3). Different physicochemical and bacteriological parameters (turbidity, pH, conductivity, suspended solids, alkalinity, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, chemical oxygen demand (COD), 5-day biological oxygen demand (BOD5), dissolved oxygen, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and total heterotrophic bacteria) were analysed according to the Standard Method for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. When comparing the values of total coliforms, E. coli, total heterotrophic bacteria, COD, BOD5 and phosphates from the zone without anthropogenic influence (RP1) and the urban zones (RP2 and RP3) an important variation in the parameters was observed. These results indicate that the urban activity produces a serious and negative effect on the water quality, thus constituting a sanitary risk and may have a major impact on the trophic status of the Potrero de los Funes dam. As case study, we report on the use of General Quality Index (GQI) to evaluate spatial and seasonal changes in the water quality of Potrero de los Funes River. Results revealed a significant degradation of the water quality at RP2 and RP3.

Barles, S. and L. Lestel (2007). "The nitrogen question - Urbanization, industrialization, and river quality in Paris, 1830-1939." Journal of Urban History 33(5): 794-812.
This article analyzes the ways in which hygienists, scientists, and officials in nineteenth-century Paris came to understand nitrogen as an asset, not just a problem. In so doing, they became convinced of the necessity to give back to the land what the city had taken. This involved identifying nitrogen sources and flows in the city, using urban and industrial wastes as nitrogen fertilizers for agriculture, and developing the organic and mineral fertilizer industry in Paris. The solutions they proposed extended far beyond the river itself to include the organization of the city of Paris and its region. This interest in nitrogen led to the first calculations in France of nitrogen balance and flow and stimulated efforts to reduce nitrogen loss for hygienic, environmental, and agricultural reasons. The final part of the essay seeks to explain why this intense activity failed to survive the First World War.


Casadio, A., M. Maglionico, et al. (2010). "Toxicity and pollutant impact analysis in an urban river due to combined sewer overflows loads." Water Science and Technology 61(1): 207-215.
The Navile Channel (Bologna, Italy) is an ancient artificial water course derived from the Reno river. It is the main receiving water body for the urban catchment of Bologna sewer systems and also for the Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) main outlet. The aim of this work is to evaluate the Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) impact on Navile Channel's water quality. In order to collect Navile flow and water quality data in both dry and wet weather conditions, two measuring and sampling stations were installed, right upstream and downstream the WWTP outflow. The study shows that even in case of low intensity rain events, CSOs have a significant effect on both water quantity and quality, spilling a considerable amount of pollutants into the Navile Channel and presenting also acute toxicity effects. The collected data shown a good correlations between the concentrations of TSS and of chemical compounds analyzed, suggesting that the most part of such substances is attached to suspended solids. Resulting toxicity values are fairly high in both measuring points and seem to confirm synergistic interactions between heavy metals.

Davis, N. M., V. Weaver, et al. (2003). "An assessment of water quality, physical habitat, and biological integrity of an urban stream in Wichita, Kansas, prior to restoration improvements (phase I)." Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 44(3): 351-359.
Urban development alters the natural hydrological conditions of many streams and rivers often resulting in the degradation of water quality, physical habitat, and biotic integrity of lotic systems. Restoration projects attempt to improve and maintain the ecological integrity of urban streams; however, few projects have quantified improvements to stream ecology following implementation of restoration measures. This paper summarizes pre-restoration data collected as part of an urban stream restoration project on Gypsum Creek in Wichita, Kansas. Water quality monitoring revealed eutrophic conditions in the stream and the presence of pesticides. Channelization has led to changes in physical habitat including bank erosion, sedimentation, loss of substrate and channel diversity, elimination of in-stream aquatic habitat, removal of riparian vegetation, and, decreased base flows. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities appear degraded with more than 90% of individuals collected described as tolerant to anthropogenic stressors. Fish communities were assessed with an Index of Biotic Integrity and were rated as poor to fair, with trophic structure dominated by generalists, no sensitive species present, and one-third of the species collected considered nonnative. Overall, the data collected strongly suggest that site-specific restoration measures need to be implemented in order to improve and maintain the ecological condition of Gypsum Creek. Recommendations for improvements have been made to city managers, with implementation beginning in spring 2003 (dependent upon funding availability).

Eaton, H. J. and M. J. Lydy (2000). "Assessment of water quality in Wichita, Kansas, using an index of biotic integrity and analysis of bed sediment and fish tissue for organochlorine insecticides." Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 39(4): 531-540.
This study investigated water quality of the Arkansas River and its tributaries in the Wichita, Kansas, area. Water quality assessment included an evaluation of urban versus agricultural areas using a twofold approach: (1) assessment of fish community health using an index of biotic integrity (IBI); and (2) analysis of organochlorine (OC) insecticides in fish tissue (Cyprinus carpio) and sediment samples via gas chromatography. Results of the IBI analysis indicated that the overall health of the fish community was poor. No significant difference existed among IBI scores at urban sites compared to agricultural sites; however, a pattern was noted with higher IBI scores at the agricultural sites. Total IBI scores and individual metrics were not statistically correlated to either normalized or non-normalized organochlorine concentrations in fish or sediment. Lindane, chlordane, 4,4'-DDT, and 4,4'-DDE were the most commonly detected OCs in sediment and fish tissue and often exceeded federal guidelines. Total OC concentrations and their detection frequency were significantly greater in urban than agricultural areas. In addition, a significant correlation was found among total OC concentrations in fish and sediment. This assessment concluded that overall water quality in the Wichita area was poor and that the urban area has significantly impacted water quality.


Smith, V. H., J. Sieber-Denlinger, et al. (2002). "Managing taste and odor problems in a eutrophic drinking water reservoir." Lake and Reservoir Management 18(4): 319-323.
Drinking water for the City of Wichita, KS is provided by Cheney Reservoir, a eutrophic impoundment constructed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in 1962. Ibis large, shallow reservoir has a mean depth of 5.3 meters and a surface area of 40 km(2). Numerous reports of undesirable taste and odor in drinking water were received by the City of Wichita Water and Sewer Department in the early 1990's, and periodic episodes of objectionable tastes and odor have occurred up through fall 2001. An intensive limnological sampling program was carried out from August 1999-October 2000, and simultaneous measurements of two taste and odor-causing compounds (geosmin and methylisoborneol) in the lakewater were also performed. These data were used to construct empirical, phosphorus-based water quality management recommendations designed to help reduce the likelihood of objectionable taste and odor events in Cheney Reservoir. The general framework developed here should also be applicable to other waterbodies exhibiting taste and odor-related problems.


Sophocleous, M. (2000). "From safe yield to sustainable development of water resources - the Kansas experience." Journal of Hydrology 235(1-2): 27-43.
This paper presents a synthesis of water sustainability issues from the hydrologic perspective. It shows that safe yield is a flawed concept and that sustainability is an idea that is broadly used but perhaps not well understood. In general, the sustainable yield of an aquifer must be considerably less than recharge if adequate amounts of water are to be available to sustain both the quantity and quality of streams, springs, wetlands, and ground-water-dependent ecosystems. To ensure sustainability, it is imperative that water limits be established based on hydrologic principles of mass balance. To establish water-use policies and planning horizons, the transition curves of aquifer systems from ground-water storage depletion to induced recharge of surface water need to be developed. present-day numerical models are capable of generating such transition curves. Several idealized examples of aquifer systems show how this could be done. Because of the complexity of natural systems and the uncertainties in characterizing them, the current philosophy underlying sustainable management of water resources is based on the interconnected systems approach and on adaptive management. Examples of water-resources management from Kansas illustrate some of these concepts in a real-world setting. Some of the hallmarks of Kansas water management are the formation of local groundwater management districts, the adoption of minimum streamflow standards, the use of modified safe-yield policies in some districts, the implementation of integrated resource planning by the City of Wichita, and the subbasin water-resources manage ment program in potential problem areas. These are all appropriate steps toward sustainable development. The Kansas examples show that local decision-making is the best way to fully account fur local variability in water management. However, it is imperative that public education and involvement be encouraged, so that system complexities and constraints an better understood and overly simplistic solutions avoided. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.